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===Craters=== To simulate the effect of an impact on the surface of an object, Universe Sandbox changes the appearance of the larger object to show an [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_crater impact crater] on its surface. The diameter of the crater is calculated from the parameters of the collision, including the [[Density|densities]] of the larger and smaller objects, Ο<sub>1</sub> and Ο<sub>2</sub>, the [[radius]] of the smaller object, ''R''<sub>2</sub>, the relative velocity of the colliding objects, ''V''<sub>rel</sub>, and the [[Surface Gravity|surface gravity]] of the larger object, ''g''<sub>1</sub>, using<ref name="Collins">Collins, G.S.; Melosh, H.J.; Marcus, R.A. (2005).[https://www.purdue.edu/impactearth/Content/pdf/Documentation.pdf Earth Impact Effects Program: A Web-based computer program for calculating the regional environmental consequences of a meteoroid impact on Earth]. ''Meteoritics & Planetary Science''. '''40''' (6):817-849</ref> :<math>D_{crater} = 1.161 \left(\frac{\rho_2}{\rho_1}\right)^{1/3} (2 R_2)^{0.78} V_{rel}^{0.44} g_1^{-0.22}. </math> For collisions in which the radius of the smaller object is less than 5% of the radius of the larger object, Universe Sandbox uses a simpler equation for calculating the diameter of the crater, based on the [[mass]] of the smaller object, ''M''<sub>2</sub>, and the relative velocity of the colliding objects, using<ref>Strobel, N. (2019). [http://www.astronomynotes.com/solfluf/s5.htm Effects of an Asteroid Impact on Earth]. ''Astronomy Notes''.</ref> :<math>D_{crater} = 0.0195 (M_2 V_{rel}^2 / 2)^{1/3.4}. </math>
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